Mefuta e meraro e hatisitsoeng ea anatomical (3DPAMs) e bonahala e le sesebelisoa se loketseng ka lebaka la boleng ba eona ba thuto le ho khoneha.Sepheo sa tlhahlobo ena ke ho hlalosa le ho sekaseka mekhoa e sebelisoang ho theha 3DPAM bakeng sa ho ruta sebōpeho sa motho le ho hlahloba tlatsetso ea eona ea thuto.
Patlisiso ea elektronike e entsoe PubMed ho sebelisoa mantsoe a latelang: thuto, sekolo, ho ithuta, ho ruta, koetliso, thuto, thuto, mahlakore a mararo, 3D, 3-dimensional, khatiso, khatiso, khatiso, anatomy, anatomy, anatomy, le anatomy. ..Liphuputso li ne li kenyelletsa litšobotsi tsa thuto, moralo oa mohlala, tlhahlobo ea mofo, ts'ebetso ea thuto, matla le mefokolo.
Har'a lingoloa tse 68 tse khethiloeng, palo e kholo ka ho fetisisa ea lithuto e tsepamisitse maikutlo sebakeng sa cranial (lingoloa tse 33);Lingoloa tse 51 li bua ka khatiso ea masapo.Lingoliloeng tse 47, 3DPAM e thehiloe ho latela computed tomography.Ho thathamisitsoe mekhoa e mehlano ea khatiso.Plastiki le lintho tse tsoang ho tsona li ile tsa sebelisoa lithutong tse 48.Moqapi o mong le o mong o tloha ho $1.25 ho isa ho $2,800.Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e supileng li bapisitse 3DPAM le mefuta ea litšupiso.Lihlooho tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro li ile tsa hlahloba mesebetsi ea thuto.Melemo e ka sehloohong ke boleng ba pono le bo sebetsang, bokhoni ba ho ithuta, ho pheta-pheta, ho ikamahanya le maemo le ho ba mahlahahlaha, ho boloka nako, ho kopanngoa ha sebōpeho sa mosebetsi, bokhoni bo betere ba ho potoloha ha kelello, ho boloka tsebo le khotsofalo ea mosuoe / seithuti.Mefokolo e ka sehloohong e amana le moralo: ho tsitsisa, ho hloka lintlha kapa ho hlaka, mebala e khanyang haholo, linako tse telele tsa khatiso le litšenyehelo tse phahameng.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e bontša hore 3DPAM e na le litšenyehelo tse ngata ebile e sebetsa hantle bakeng sa ho ruta anatomy.Mefuta e meng ea sebele e hloka ho sebelisoa ha theknoloji ea khatiso ea 3D e theko e boima haholo le linako tse telele tsa moralo, tse tla eketsa litšenyehelo tse ngata haholo.Ntho ea bohlokoa ke ho khetha mokhoa o nepahetseng oa ho nka litšoantšo.Ho ea ka pono ea borutoana, 3DPAM ke sesebelisoa se sebetsang sa ho ruta ka sebōpeho sa 'mele, se nang le phello e ntle liphellong tsa thuto le khotsofalo.Phello ea ho ruta ea 3DPAM e molemo ka ho fetisisa ha e hlahisa libaka tse rarahaneng tsa anatomical 'me liithuti li e sebelisa mathoasong a koetliso ea bona ea bongaka.
Ho aroloa ha litopo tsa liphoofolo ho 'nile ha etsoa ho tloha Greece ea boholo-holo' me ke o mong oa mekhoa e ka sehloohong ea ho ruta sebōpeho sa 'mele.Li-dissections tsa Cadaveric tse entsoeng nakong ea koetliso e sebetsang li sebelisoa thutong ea theory ea liithuti tsa bongaka tsa univesithi 'me hona joale li nkoa e le tekanyetso ea khauta bakeng sa thuto ea anatomy [1,2,3,4,5].Leha ho le joalo, ho na le litšitiso tse ngata tsa tšebeliso ea li-cadaveric tsa batho, tse susumetsang ho batla lisebelisoa tse ncha tsa koetliso [6, 7].Tse ling tsa lisebelisoa tsena tse ncha li kenyelletsa 'nete e netefalitsoeng, lisebelisoa tsa digital, le khatiso ea 3D.Ho latela tlhahlobo ea morao-rao ea lingoliloeng ea Santos et al.[8] Mabapi le boleng ba theknoloji ena e ncha ea ho ruta anatomy, khatiso ea 3D e bonahala e le e 'ngoe ea lisebelisoa tsa bohlokoa ka ho fetisisa, ho latela boleng ba thuto ho liithuti le ho khoneha ho kenya ts'ebetsong [4,9,10] .
Khatiso ea 3D ha e ncha.Litokelo tsa pele tse amanang le theknoloji ena li qalile ka 1984: A Le Méhauté, O De Witte le JC André Fora, 'me libeke tse tharo hamorao C Hull e USA.Ho tloha ka nako eo, theknoloji e 'nile ea tsoela pele ho fetoha' me tšebeliso ea eona e atolohile libakeng tse ngata.Ka mohlala, NASA e hatisitse ntho ea pele ho feta Lefatše ka 2014 [11].Lefapha la bongaka le boetse le amohetse sesebelisoa sena se secha, kahoo se eketsa takatso ea ho hlahisa meriana ea motho ka mong [12].
Bangoli ba bangata ba bontšitse melemo ea ho sebelisa 3D printed anatomical models (3DPAM) thutong ea bongaka [10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].Ha u ruta sebōpeho sa motho, ho hlokahala mehlala e seng ea pathological le ea anatomically.Litlhahlobo tse ling li hlahlobile mekhoa ea koetliso ea mafu kapa ea bongaka / ea ho buoa [8, 20, 21].Ho theha mofuta oa lebasetere oa ho ruta sebōpeho sa motho o kenyelletsang lisebelisoa tse ncha joalo ka khatiso ea 3D, re entse tlhahlobo e hlophisitsoeng ho hlalosa le ho sekaseka hore na lintho tse hatisitsoeng tsa 3D li entsoe joang bakeng sa ho ruta sebōpeho sa motho le hore na baithuti ba lekola katleho ea ho ithuta ba sebelisa lintho tsena tsa 3D joang.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng ea lingoliloeng e ile ea etsoa ka Phuptjane 2022 ntle le lithibelo tsa nako ho sebelisa tataiso ea PRISMA (Lintho Tse Ratoang Litlaleho Bakeng sa Litlhahlobo Tse Hlophisitsoeng le Meta-Analyses) [22].
Mekhoa ea ho kenyelletsa e ne e le lipampiri tsohle tsa lipatlisiso tse sebelisang 3DPAM thutong ea anatomy/ho ithuta.Litlhahlobo tsa lingoliloeng, mangolo, kapa lingoliloeng tse shebaneng le mefuta ea mafu, mehlala ea liphoofolo, mehlala ea baepolli ba lintho tsa khale, le mefuta ea koetliso ea bongaka/ho buoa li ne li qheletsoe ka thoko.Ho ile ha khethoa lihlooho tse hatisitsoeng ka Senyesemane feela.Lingoliloeng tse se nang likhakanyo tse fumanehang marang-rang li ne li qheletsoe ka thoko.Lingoliloeng tse neng li kenyelletsa mehlala e mengata, bonyane e 'ngoe ea tsona e neng e tloaelehile kapa e na le lefu le lenyenyane le sa ameng boleng ba thuto, li kenyelelitsoe.
Patlo ea lingoliloeng e ile ea etsoa polokelong ea elektronike ea PubMed (Laebrari ea Sechaba ea Meriana, NCBI) ho khetholla lithuto tse nepahetseng tse hatisitsoeng ho fihlela ka June 2022. Sebelisa mantsoe a latelang a ho batla: thuto, sekolo, ho ruta, ho ruta, ho ithuta, ho ruta, thuto, tse tharo- dimensional, 3D, 3D, khatiso, khatiso, khatiso, anatomy, anatomy, anatomy le anatomy.Ho ile ha etsoa potso e le 'ngoe: (((Thuto[Sehlooho/Abstract] KAPA sekolo[Sehlooho/Abstract] KAPA Thuto[Sehlooho/Abstract] KAPA thuto[Sehlooho/Abstract] KAPA koetliso[Sehlooho/Abstract] OReach[Title/Abstract] ] KAPA Thuto [Sehlooho/Sengoloa]) LE (Litekanyo tse Tharo [Sehlooho] KAPA 3D [Sehlooho] KAPA 3D [Sehlooho)) LE (Printa [Sehlooho] KAPA Hatisa [Sehlooho] KAPA Hatisa [Sehlooho])) LE (Anatomy) [Sehlooho ] ]/abstract] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/abstract] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/abstract] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/abstract]).Lingoliloeng tse ling li ile tsa bonoa ka ho batlisisa polokelong ea litaba ea PubMed le ho hlahloba litšupiso tsa lingoliloeng tse ling tsa mahlale.Ha ho lithibelo tsa matsatsi tse sebelisitsoeng, empa ho ile ha sebelisoa sefahla sa "Motho".
Litlotla tsohle tse khutlisitsoeng le likhakanyo li ile tsa hlahlojoa khahlano le mekhoa ea ho kenyelletsoa le ho qheleloa ka thoko ke bangoli ba babeli (EBR le AL), mme thuto efe kapa efe e sa fihlelleng litekanyetso tsohle tsa ho tšoaneleha e ne e qheletsoe ka thoko.Lingoliloeng tse felletseng tsa lithuto tse setseng li ile tsa khutlisoa le ho hlahlojoa ke bangoli ba bararo (EBR, EBE le AL).Ha ho hlokahala, ho se lumellane ha ho khethoa lihlooho ho ile ha rarolloa ke motho oa bone (LT).Likhatiso tse fihletseng mekhoa eohle ea ho kenyelletsa li kenyelelitsoe tlhahlobisong ena.
Ho ntšoa ha data ho entsoe ka boikemelo ke bangoli ba babeli (EBR le AL) tlas'a taolo ea sengoli sa boraro (LT).
- Lintlha tsa moralo oa mohlala: libaka tsa anatomical, likarolo tse ikhethang tsa anatomical, mohlala oa pele oa khatiso ea 3D, mokhoa oa ho fumana, likarolo le software ea mohlala, mofuta oa khatiso oa 3D, mofuta oa thepa le bongata, tekanyo ea khatiso, mebala, litšenyehelo tsa khatiso.
- Tlhahlobo ea morphological ea mehlala: mehlala e sebelisoang ho bapisa, tlhahlobo ea bongaka ea litsebi/matichere, palo ea bahlahlobisisi, mofuta oa tlhahlobo.
- Ho ruta mohlala oa 3D: tlhahlobo ea tsebo ea seithuti, mokhoa oa ho hlahloba, palo ea liithuti, palo ea lihlopha tsa papiso, ho etsa lintho ka mokhoa o sa reroang, thuto / mofuta oa seithuti.
Liphuputso tsa 418 li ile tsa khetholloa ho MEDLINE, 'me lihlooho tsa 139 li ne li sa kenyelletsoa ke "filter" ea batho.Ka mora ho shebisisa dihlooho le dikakaretso, ho ile ha kgethwa dithuto tse 103 bakeng sa ho bala mongolo ka botlalo.Lingoloa tse 34 li ne li qheletsoe ka thoko hobane e ne e le mehlala ea mafu (lingoloa tsa 9), mehlala ea koetliso ea bongaka/ho buoa (lingoloa tse 4), mehlala ea liphoofolo (lingoloa tse 4), mehlala ea radiology ea 3D (sengoloa sa 1) kapa e ne e se lingoliloeng tsa mahlale tsa mantlha (likhaolo tsa 16).).Kakaretso ea lihlooho tse 68 li kenyelelitsoe tlhahlobong.Setšoantšo sa 1 se hlahisa mokhoa oa ho khetha e le chate e phallang.
Chate e phallang e akaretsa boitsebahatso, tlhahlobo, le ho kenyeletsoa ha lingoliloeng tlhahlobong ena e hlophisitsoeng
Lithuto tsohle li phatlalalitsoe lipakeng tsa 2014 le 2022, ka karolelano ea selemo sa khatiso sa 2019. Har'a tse 68 tse kenyellelitsoeng, lithuto tse 33 (49%) e ne e le tse hlalosang le liteko, 17 (25%) e ne e le liteko feela, 'me 18 (26%) e ne e le liteko. tekolo.E hlalosang hantle.Har'a lithuto tsa liteko tsa 50 (73%), 21 (31%) e sebelisitse randomization.Ke lithuto tsa 34 feela (50%) tse kenyelelitseng litlhahlobo tsa lipalo-palo.Letlapa la 1 le akaretsa litšobotsi tsa thuto ka 'ngoe.
Lihlooho tsa 33 (48%) li ile tsa hlahloba sebaka sa hlooho, lihlooho tsa 19 (28%) li ile tsa hlahloba sebaka sa thoracic, lihlooho tsa 17 (25%) li ile tsa hlahloba sebaka sa mpa, 'me lihlooho tsa 15 (22%) li ile tsa hlahloba lipheletsong.Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mahlano a motso o mong (75%) li boletse masapo a hatisitsoeng a 3D e le mehlala ea anatomical kapa mefuta e mengata ea li-anatomical.
Mabapi le mehlala ea mohloli kapa lifaele tse sebelisetsoang ho hlahisa 3DPAM, lihlooho tsa 23 (34%) li boletse tšebeliso ea lintlha tsa mokuli, lihlooho tsa 20 (29%) li boletse tšebeliso ea data ea cadaveric, 'me lihlooho tsa 17 (25%) li boletse tšebeliso ea lisebelisoa.li ile tsa sebelisoa, 'me lithuto tsa 7 (10%) ha lia ka tsa senola mohloli oa litokomane tse sebelisitsoeng.
Lithuto tsa 47 (69%) li hlahisitse 3DPAM e thehiloeng ho computed tomography, 'me lithuto tsa 3 (4%) li tlalehile tšebeliso ea microCT.Lingoliloeng tsa 7 (10%) li hlahisitse lintho tsa 3D tse sebelisang li-scanner tsa optical, lihlooho tsa 4 (6%) tse sebelisang MRI, le sehlooho sa 1 (1%) se sebelisang lik'hamera le li-microscopes.Lingoloa tsa 14 (21%) ha lia ka tsa bua ka mohloli oa lifaele tsa mohloli oa moralo oa 3D.Lifaele tsa 3D li entsoe ka qeto e tloaelehileng ea sebaka se ka tlase ho 0.5 mm.Qeto e nepahetseng ke 30 μm [80] mme qeto e phahameng ke 1.5 mm [32].
Ho ile ha sebelisoa lisebelisoa tse mashome a tšeletseng tse fapaneng tsa software (karohano, mohlala, moralo kapa khatiso).Mimics (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) e ne e sebelisoa hangata (lithuto tsa 14, 21%), e lateloa ke MeshMixer (Autodesk, San Rafael, CA) (lithuto tsa 13, 19%), Geomagic (3D System, MO, NC, Leesville) .(lithuto tse 10, 15%), 3D Slicer (Thupelo ea Baetsi ba Slicer, Boston, MA) (lithuto tse 9, 13%), Blender (Blender Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands) (lithuto tse 8, 12%) le CURA (Geldemarsen, Netherlands) (lithuto tse 7, 10%).
Ho boleloa mefuta ea khatiso e fapaneng e mashome a tšeletseng a metso e supileng le mekhoa e mehlano ea khatiso.Theknoloji ea FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) e sebelisitsoe lihlahisoa tse 26 (38%), ho phatloha ha thepa lihlahisoa tse 13 (19%) 'me qetellong ho phatloha ho tlamang (lihlahisoa tse 11, 16%).Litheknoloji tse sebelisoang hanyane ka hanyane ke stereolithography (SLA) (lingoloa tse 5, 7%) le laser sintering e khethiloeng (SLS) (lingoloa tse 4, 6%).Mohatisi o sebelisoang haholo (lingoloa tse 7, 10%) ke Connex 500 (Stratasys, Rehovot, Israel) [27, 30, 32, 36, 45, 62, 65].
Ha ho hlakisoa lisebelisoa tse sebelisoang ho etsa 3DPAM (lingoloa tse 51, 75%), lithuto tse 48 (71%) li sebelisitse polasetiki le lihlahisoa tsa tsona.Lisebelisoa tse ka sehloohong tse sebelisitsoeng e ne e le PLA (polylactic acid) (n = 20, 29%), resin (n = 9, 13%) le ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (mefuta ea 7, 10%).Lingoloa tse 23 (34%) li ile tsa hlahloba 3DPAM e entsoeng ka thepa e ngata, lingoliloeng tsa 36 (53%) li hlahisitse 3DPAM e entsoeng ka thepa e le 'ngoe feela,' me lingoliloeng tsa 9 (13%) ha lia ka tsa hlakisa thepa.
Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mabeli a metso e robong (43%) li tlalehile likhatiso tse tsoang ho 0.25:1 ho isa ho 2:1, ka karolelano ea 1:1.Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mabeli a metso e mehlano (37%) li sebelisitse karo-karolelano ea 1:1.28 3DPAMs (41%) e ne e e-na le mebala e mengata, 'me 9 (13%) e ne e dauoa ka mor'a ho hatisoa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75].
Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mararo a metso e mene (50%) li boletse litšenyehelo.Lingoloa tse 9 (13%) li boletse litšenyehelo tsa bahatisi ba 3D le lisebelisoa tse tala.Likhatiso li fapana ka theko ho tloha ho $302 ho isa ho $65,000.Ha ho hlalositsoe, litheko tsa mohlala li tloha ho $ 1.25 ho ea ho $ 2,800;maemo ana a feteletseng a lumellana le mehlala ea marapo [47] le mehlala ea retroperitoneal e phahameng ea botšepehi [48].Letlapa la 2 le akaretsa lintlha tsa mohlala bakeng sa thuto ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e supileng (54%) li bapisitse 3DAPM le mohlala oa litšupiso.Har'a lithuto tsena, papiso e tloaelehileng ka ho fetisisa e ne e le mohlala oa litšupiso tsa anatomical, o sebelisitsoeng lihloohong tsa 14 (38%), litokisetso tse entsoeng ka polasinated lihloohong tsa 6 (16%), litokisetso tse entsoeng ka polasetiki ka lihlooho tsa 6 (16%).Tšebeliso ea 'nete ea sebele, computed tomography imaging 3DPAM e le' ngoe lihloohong tsa 5 (14%), 3DPAM e 'ngoe lihloohong tsa 3 (8%), lipapali tse tebileng sehloohong sa 1 (3%), radiographs sehloohong sa 1 (3%), mehlala ea khoebo ho Sengoloa sa 1 (3%) le nnete e ekelitsoeng ho sengoloa sa 1 (3%).Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e mene (50%) li ile tsa hlahloba 3DPAM.Lithuto tse leshome le metso e mehlano (48%) li hlalositse liphihlelo tsa bareki ka botlalo (Letlapa la 3).3DPAM e entsoe ke lingaka tse buoang kapa lingaka tse eang lithutong tsa 7 (47%), litsebi tsa anatomical lithutong tsa 6 (40%), liithuti tsa lithuto tsa 3 (20%), matichere (taeo e sa boleloang) lithutong tsa 3 (20%) bakeng sa tlhahlobo. le mohlahlobi e mong hape sehloohong (7%).Karolelano ea palo ea bahlahlobisisi ke 14 (bonyane 2, boholo ba 30).Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro (49%) li ile tsa hlahloba 3DPAM morphology ka boleng, 'me lithuto tse 10 (15%) li ile tsa hlahloba 3DPAM morphology ka bongata.Har'a lithuto tse 33 tse sebelisitseng litekanyetso tsa boleng, tse 16 li sebelisitse litlhahlobo tse hlalosang feela (48%), tse 9 li sebelisitse liteko / litekanyetso / liphuputso (27%), le tse 8 li sebelisitse sekala sa Likert (24%).Letlapa la 3 le akaretsa litlhahlobo tsa morphological tsa mehlala thutong ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro (48%) li ile tsa hlahloba le ho bapisa katleho ea ho ruta 3DPAM ho baithuti.Har'a lithuto tsena, lihlooho tse 23 (70%) li ile tsa hlahloba khotsofalo ea liithuti, 17 (51%) li sebelisitse sekala sa Likert, 'me 6 (18%) li sebelisitse mekhoa e meng.Lingoliloeng tse mashome a mabeli a metso e 'meli (67%) li ile tsa lekola thuto ea baithuti ka tlhahlobo ea tsebo, eo 10 (30%) ea eona e sebelisitseng liteko tsa pele le/kapa liteko tsa morao-rao.Lithuto tse leshome le motso o mong (33%) li sebelisitse lipotso le liteko tsa likhetho tse ngata ho lekola tsebo ea baithuti, 'me lithuto tse hlano (15%) li sebelisitse ho ngola litšoantšo / boitsebahatso ba tlhaho.Karolelano ea baithuti ba 76 ba nkile karolo thutong ka 'ngoe (bonyane ba 8, boholo ba 319).Liphuputso tse mashome a mabeli a metso e mene (72%) li ne li e-na le sehlopha sa taolo, seo 20 (60%) se sebelisitseng mokhoa o sa tloaelehang.Ka lehlakoreng le leng, thuto e le 'ngoe (3%) e ile ea abela liithuti tse 10 tse fapaneng ka mokhoa o sa reroang.Ka karolelano, lihlopha tsa 2.6 li ne li bapisoa (bonyane 2, boholo ba 10).Lithuto tse mashome a mabeli a metso e meraro (70%) li ne li ama liithuti tsa bongaka, tseo 14 (42%) e neng e le liithuti tsa selemo sa pele sa bongaka.Lithuto tse tšeletseng (18%) li amme baahi, 4 (12%) liithuti tsa meno, le 3 (9%) liithuti tsa saense.Lithuto tse tšeletseng (18%) li kentse tšebetsong le ho lekola thuto ea boipuso ka 3DPAM.Letlapa la 4 le akaretsa liphetho tsa tlhahlobo ea katleho ea ho ruta ea 3DPAM bakeng sa thuto ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Melemo e ka sehloohong e tlalehiloeng ke bangoli ba ho sebelisa 3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ruta bakeng sa sebōpeho se tloaelehileng sa motho ke litšobotsi tse bonahalang le tse tactile, ho kenyelletsa le 'nete [55, 67], ho nepahala [44, 50, 72, 85], le ho feto-fetoha ha maemo [34, 45] ]., 48, 64], 'mala le pepeneneng [28, 45], durability [24, 56, 73], phello ea thuto [16, 32, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], litšenyehelo [27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 64, 80, 81, 83], reproducibility [80], monyetla oa ho ntlafatsa kapa ho iketsetsa motho [28, 30, 36, 45, 48, 51, 53, 59, 61, 67 , 80], bokhoni ba ho laola liithuti [30, 49], ho boloka nako ea ho ruta [61, 80], boiketlo ba ho boloka [61], bokhoni ba ho kopanya li-anatomy tse sebetsang kapa ho etsa mehaho e itseng [51, 53], 67] , moralo o potlakileng oa mehlala ea marapo [81], bokhoni ba ho kopanya mehlala le ho ba isa hae [49, 60, 71], ho ntlafatsa bokhoni ba ho potoloha ha kelello [23] le ho boloka tsebo [32], hammoho le mosuoe [ 25, 63] le khotsofalo ea seithuti [25, 45, 46, 52, 52, 57, 63, 66, 69, 84].
Mefokolo e ka sehloohong e amana le moralo: ho tiea [80], ho tsitsisa [28, 62], ho hloka lintlha kapa pepeneneng [28, 30, 34, 45, 48, 62, 64, 81], mebala e khanyang haholo [45].le ho fokola ha fatše[71].Litsietsi tse ling li kenyelletsa tahlehelo ea tlhaiso-leseling [30, 76], nako e telele e hlokahalang bakeng sa karohano ea setšoantšo [36, 52, 57, 58, 74], nako ea khatiso [57, 63, 66, 67], ho hloka phapang ea tlhaho [25], le litšenyehelo .Holimo[48].
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e akaretsa lingoloa tse 68 tse phatlalalitsoeng ka lilemo tse 9 mme e totobatsa thahasello ea sechaba sa mahlale ho 3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ruta sebōpeho se tloaelehileng sa motho.Sebaka se seng le se seng sa anatomical se ile sa ithutoa 'me sa hatisoa 3D.Har'a lingoliloeng tsena, lingoloa tse 37 li ile tsa bapisa 3DPAM le mefuta e meng, 'me lingoliloeng tse 33 li ile tsa lekola bohlokoa ba thuto ea 3DPAM bakeng sa baithuti.
Ka lebaka la phapang ea moralo oa lithuto tsa khatiso tsa anatomical 3D, ha rea ka ra bona ho loketse ho etsa tlhahlobo ea meta.Tlhahlobo ea meta e phatlalalitsoeng ka 2020 e shebane haholo le liteko tsa tsebo ea anatomical kamora koetliso ntle le ho sekaseka likarolo tsa tekheniki le tsa mahlale tsa moralo le tlhahiso ea 3DPAM [10].
Sebaka sa hlooho ke sona se ithutoang ka ho fetisisa, mohlomong hobane ho rarahana ha sebōpeho sa eona ho etsa hore ho be thata haholoanyane hore liithuti li tšoantše sebaka sena sa anatomical sebakeng sa mahlakore a mararo ha se bapisoa le maoto le matsoho kapa torso.CT ke mokhoa o sebelisoang haholo oa ho etsa litšoantšo.Mokhoa ona o sebelisoa haholo, haholo maemong a bongaka, empa o na le tharollo e fokolang ea sebaka le phapang e tlase ea lisele tse bonolo.Mefokolo ena e etsa hore CT scans e se ke ea tšoaneleha bakeng sa ho arola le ho etsa mohlala oa tsamaiso ea methapo.Ka lehlakoreng le leng, computed tomography e loketse hamolemo ho arola lisele tsa masapo / ho etsa mohlala;Phapang ea masapo / e bonolo e thusa ho phethela mehato ena pele ho mefuta ea anatomical ea khatiso ea 3D.Ka lehlakoreng le leng, microCT e nkoa e le thekenoloji ea litšupiso ho latela qeto ea sebaka sa ho nahana ka masapo [70].Lisebelisoa tsa Optical kapa MRI le tsona li ka sebelisoa ho fumana litšoantšo.Qeto e phahameng e thibela ho boreleli ha bokaholimo ba masapo mme e boloka manonyeletso a libopeho tsa anatomical [59].Khetho ea mohlala e boetse e ama qeto ea sebaka: mohlala, mehlala ea polasetiki e na le qeto e tlaase [45].Baqapi ba litšoantšo ba tlameha ho theha mefuta e tloaelehileng ea 3D, e eketsang litšenyehelo ($25 ho $150 ka hora) [43].Ho fumana lifaele tsa boleng bo holimo tsa .STL ha hoa lekana ho theha mefuta ea boleng bo holimo ea anatomical.Hoa hlokahala ho tseba litekanyo tsa khatiso, joalo ka mokhoa oa sebopeho sa anatomical poleiti ea khatiso [29].Bangoli ba bang ba fana ka maikutlo a hore theknoloji e tsoetseng pele ea khatiso e kang SLS e lokela ho sebelisoa hohle moo ho khonehang ho ntlafatsa ho nepahala ha 3DPAM [38].Tlhahiso ea 3DPAM e hloka thuso ea litsebi;litsebi tse batloang ka ho fetisisa ke lienjiniere [72], radiologists, [75], baetsi ba litšoantšo [43] le anatomist [25, 28, 51, 57, 76, 77].
Likarolo le software ea ho etsa mohlala ke lintlha tsa bohlokoa ho fumana mehlala e nepahetseng ea anatomical, empa litšenyehelo tsa liphutheloana tsena tsa software le ho rarahana ha tsona li sitisa ts'ebeliso ea tsona.Lithuto tse 'maloa li bapisitse ts'ebeliso ea liphutheloana tse fapaneng tsa software le mahlale a khatiso, a totobatsa melemo le likotsi tsa theknoloji e' ngoe le e 'ngoe [68].Ho phaella ho software ea ho etsa mohlala, software ea khatiso e lumellanang le mochine o khethiloeng o boetse oa hlokahala;bangoli ba bang ba khetha ho sebelisa khatiso ea 3D inthaneteng [75].Haeba lintho tse lekaneng tsa 3D li hatisoa, matsete a ka lebisa ho khutlisetso ea lichelete [72].
Plastiki ke eona ntho e sebelisoang haholo.Mefuta e mengata ea mebala le mebala ea eona e etsa hore e be thepa ea khetho bakeng sa 3DPAM.Bangoli ba bang ba rorisitse matla a eona a phahameng ha a bapisoa le mefuta ea setso ea cadaveric kapa e entsoeng ka polasetiki [24, 56, 73].Li-plastiki tse ling li bile li na le lintho tse kobehang kapa tsa ho otlolla.Ka mohlala, Filaflex e nang le theknoloji ea FDM e ka otlolla ho fihlela ho 700%.Bangoli ba bang ba e nka e le thepa ea khetho bakeng sa ho pheta-pheta ha mesifa, tendon le ligament [63].Ka lehlakoreng le leng, liphuputso tse peli li hlahisitse lipotso mabapi le fiber orientation nakong ea khatiso.Ha e le hantle, mekhoa ea mesifa ea fiber, ho kenngoa, ho se be teng, le ts'ebetso ke tsa bohlokoa ho etsa mohlala oa mesifa [33].
Ho makatsang ke hore liphuputso tse ’maloa li bua ka tekanyo ea khatiso.Kaha batho ba bangata ba nka karolelano ea 1:1 e le e tloaelehileng, mongoli a ka ’na a khetha ho se bue ka eona.Le hoja ho eketsa ho ka ba molemo bakeng sa thuto e tobileng ka lihlopha tse kholo, bokhoni ba ho eketsa ha bo e-s'o hlahlojoe, haholo-holo ka boholo ba lihlopha tse ntseng li hōla le boholo ba 'mele ba mohlala e le ntlha ea bohlokoa.Ha e le hantle, litekanyo tsa boholo bo feletseng li etsa hore ho be bonolo ho fumana le ho buisana le mokuli likarolo tse sa tšoaneng tsa sebōpeho, e leng se ka hlalosang hore na ke hobane'ng ha li sebelisoa hangata.
Har'a lihatisi tse ngata tse fumanehang 'marakeng, tse sebelisang theknoloji ea PolyJet (material kapa binder inkjet) ho fana ka mebala le mefuta e mengata ('me ka hona li-multi-texture) litšenyehelo tse phahameng tsa ho hatisa pakeng tsa US$20,000 le US$250,000 (https: //www .aniwaa.com/).Theko ena e phahameng e ka fokotsa ho phahamisoa ha 3DPAM likolong tsa bongaka.Ntle le litšenyehelo tsa mochine oa khatiso, theko ea thepa e hlokahalang bakeng sa khatiso ea inkjet e phahame ho feta bakeng sa khatiso ea SLA kapa FDM [68].Litheko tsa bahatisi ba SLA kapa FDM le tsona li theko e tlase, ho tloha ho €576 ho isa ho €4,999 lihloohong tse thathamisitsoeng tlhahlobisong ena.Ho ea ka Tripodi le basebetsi-'moho, karolo e 'ngoe le e' ngoe ea skeletal e ka hatisoa ka US $ 1.25 [47].Lithuto tse leshome le motso o mong li fihletse qeto ea hore khatiso ea 3D e theko e tlaase ho feta polasetiki kapa mefuta ea khoebo [24, 27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 63, 80, 81, 83].Ho feta moo, mefuta ena ea khoebo e etselitsoe ho fana ka leseli la mokuli ntle le lintlha tse lekaneng bakeng sa thuto ea anatomy [80].Mefuta ena ea khoebo e nkuoa e le tlase ho 3DPAM [44].Ke habohlokoa ho hlokomela hore, ho phaella ho theknoloji ea khatiso e sebelisoang, litšenyehelo tsa ho qetela li lekana le tekanyo 'me ka hona boholo ba ho qetela ba 3DPAM [48].Ka mabaka ana, sekala sa boholo bo felletseng se khethoa [37].
Ke thuto e le 'ngoe feela e bapisitseng 3DPAM le mefuta ea anatomical e fumanehang khoebong [72].Mehlala ea Cadaveric ke eona e sebelisoang haholo ho bapisa 3DPAM.Ho sa tsotellehe mefokolo ea bona, mehlala ea cadaveric e ntse e le sesebelisoa sa bohlokoa sa ho ruta anatomy.Phapano e tlameha ho etsoa lipakeng tsa autopsy, dissection le lesapo le omeletseng.Ho ipapisitsoe le liteko tsa koetliso, liphuputso tse peli li bonts'itse hore 3DPAM e ne e sebetsa haholo ho feta dissection e entsoeng ka polasetiki [16, 27].Phuputso e 'ngoe e ile ea bapisa hora e le' ngoe ea koetliso e sebelisang 3DPAM (karolo e ka tlaase) le hora e le 'ngoe ea ho arohana ha sebaka se tšoanang sa anatomical [78].Ho ne ho se na phapang e khōlō pakeng tsa mekhoa e ’meli ea ho ruta.Ho ka etsahala hore ebe ho na le lipatlisiso tse fokolang tabeng ena hobane ho thata ho etsa lipapiso tse joalo.Dissection ke tokisetso e jang nako bakeng sa baithuti.Ka linako tse ling ho hlokahala lihora tse ngata tsa ho itokisetsa, ho itšetlehile ka hore na ho lokisetsoa eng.Papiso ea boraro e ka etsoa ka masapo a omileng.Phuputso e entsoeng ke Tsai le Smith e fumane hore lintlha tsa tlhahlobo li ne li le betere haholo sehlopheng se sebelisang 3DPAM [51, 63].Chen le basebetsi-'moho ba hlokometse hore baithuti ba sebelisang mefuta ea 3D ba sebelitse hamolemo ho tsebahatseng meaho (mahata), empa ho ne ho se na phapang ho lintlha tsa MCQ [69].Qetellong, Tanner le basebetsi mmoho ba bonts'itse liphetho tse ntle tsa kamora tlhahlobo sehlopheng sena ba sebelisa 3DPAM ea pterygopalatine fossa [46].Lithulusi tse ling tse ncha tsa ho ruta li ile tsa hlokomeloa tlhahlobisong ena ea lingoliloeng.Tse atileng haholo har'a tsona ke 'nete e ntseng e eketseha,' nete ea nnete le lipapali tse tebileng [43].Ho ea ka Mahrous le basebetsi-'moho, khetho ea mehlala ea anatomical e itšetlehile ka palo ea lihora tseo liithuti li bapalang lipapali tsa video [31].Ka lehlakoreng le leng, tšitiso e kholo ea lisebelisoa tse ncha tsa thuto ea anatomy ke maikutlo a haptic, haholo-holo bakeng sa lisebelisoa tsa sebele [48].
Lithuto tse ngata tse hlahlobang 3DPAM e ncha li sebelisitse liteko tsa pele tsa tsebo.Litlhahlobo tsena esale pele li thusa ho qoba leeme tlhahlobong.Bangoli ba bang, pele ba etsa lithuto tsa liteko, ha ba kenyelle baithuti bohle ba fumaneng lintlha tse kaholimo ho karolelano tekong ea pele [40].Har'a leeme Garas le basebetsi-'moho le boletsoeng e ne e le 'mala oa mohlala le khetho ea baithaopi sehlopheng sa liithuti [61].Ho silafatsa ho thusa ho tsebahatsa meaho ea anatomical.Chen le basebetsi-'moho ba thehile maemo a thata a liteko a se nang liphapang tsa pele pakeng tsa lihlopha 'me thuto e ile ea foufatsoa ho isa tekanyong e ka khonehang [69].Lim le basebetsi-'moho ba khothalletsa hore tlhahlobo ea ka mor'a tlhahlobo e phethoe ke motho e mong ho qoba leeme tekong [16].Lithuto tse ling li sebelisitse sekala sa Likert ho lekola bokhoni ba 3DPAM.Sesebelisoa sena se loketse ho lekola khotsofalo, empa ho ntse ho na le likhetho tsa bohlokoa tse lokelang ho elelloa [86].
Kamano ea thuto ea 3DPAM e ile ea hlahlojoa haholo-holo har'a liithuti tsa bongaka, ho kenyeletsoa le liithuti tsa bongaka tsa selemo sa pele, lithutong tse 14 ho tse 33.Thutong ea bona ea lifofane, Wilk le basebetsi-'moho ba tlaleha hore liithuti tsa bongaka li lumela hore khatiso ea 3D e lokela ho kenyelletsoa thutong ea bona ea sebōpeho [87].87% ea baithuti ba hlahlobiloeng phuputsong ea Cercenelli ba lumela hore selemo sa bobeli sa thuto ke nako e ntle ea ho sebelisa 3DPAM [84].Liphetho tsa Tanner le basebetsi-'moho le tsona li bonts'itse hore baithuti ba sebelitse hantle ha ba so ka ba ithuta tšimo [46].Lintlha tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore selemo sa pele sa sekolo sa bongaka ke nako e nepahetseng ea ho kenyelletsa 3DPAM thutong ea anatomy.Meta-analysis ea Ye e tšehelitse mohopolo ona [18].Lihloohong tsa 27 tse kenyelelitsoeng thutong, ho ne ho e-na le phapang e kholo ea litekanyetso tsa teko pakeng tsa 3DPAM le mehlala ea setso bakeng sa liithuti tsa bongaka, empa eseng bakeng sa baahi.
3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ithuta e ntlafatsa katleho ea thuto [16, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], ho boloka tsebo ea nako e telele [32], le khotsofalo ea liithuti [25, 45, 46, 52, 57, 63] , 66]., 69 , 84 ].Liphanele tsa litsebi li boetse li fumane mehlala ena e le molemo [37, 42, 49, 81, 82], 'me lithuto tse peli li fumane khotsofalo ea matichere ka 3DPAM [25, 63].Har'a mehloli eohle, Backhouse le basebetsi-'moho ba nka khatiso ea 3D e le khetho e ntle ka ho fetisisa ho mefuta ea setso ea tlhaho [49].Litlhahlobong tsa bona tsa pele tsa meta, Ye le basebetsi mmoho le bona ba netefalitse hore baithuti ba fumaneng litaelo tsa 3DPAM ba na le lintlha tse ntle tsa kamora tlhahlobo ho feta baithuti ba fumaneng 2D kapa litaelo tsa cadaver [10].Leha ho le joalo, ba ile ba khetholla 3DPAM eseng ka ho rarahana, empa feela ka pelo, tsamaiso ea methapo le lesapo la mpa.Lithutong tse supileng, 3DPAM ha ea ka ea feta mefuta e meng e thehiloeng litekong tsa tsebo tse fuoang baithuti [32, 66, 69, 77, 78, 84].Tlhahlobong ea bona ea meta, Salazar le basebetsi mmoho ba fihletse qeto ea hore ts'ebeliso ea 3DPAM e ntlafatsa ka ho khetheha kutloisiso ea anatomy e rarahaneng [17].Khopolo ena e lumellana le lengolo la Hitas le eang ho mohlophisi [88].Libaka tse ling tsa anatomical tse nkoang li le thata haholo ha li hloke tšebeliso ea 3DPAM, athe libaka tse rarahaneng tsa anatomical (tse kang molala kapa tsamaiso ea methapo) e ka ba khetho e utloahalang bakeng sa 3DPAM.Khopolo ena e ka 'na ea hlalosa hore na ke hobane'ng ha li-3DPAM tse ling li sa nkoe li phahametse mehlala ea setso, haholo-holo ha liithuti li haelloa ke tsebo sebakeng seo ho sona ho fumanoang hore ts'ebetso ea mohlala e phahametse.Kahoo, ho fana ka mohlala o bonolo ho liithuti tse seng li ntse li e-na le tsebo e itseng ea thuto (liithuti tsa bongaka kapa baahi) ha ho thuse ho ntlafatsa tshebetso ea liithuti.
Har'a melemo eohle ea thuto e thathamisitsoeng, lithuto tsa 11 li ile tsa hatisa litšoaneleho tse bonahalang kapa tse tactile tsa mehlala [27,34,44,45,48,50,55,63,67,72,85], le lithuto tsa 3 li ntlafalitse matla le nako e telele (33). , 50 -52, 63, 79, 85, 86).Melemo e meng ke hore baithuti ba khona ho laola meaho, matichere a boloka nako, a bolokoa habonolo ho feta li-cadavers, projeke e ka phethoa nakong ea lihora tse 24, e ka sebelisoa e le sesebelisoa sa thuto ea lapeng, hape e ka sebelisoa ho ruta chelete e ngata. tsa tlhahisoleseding.lihlopha [30, 49, 60, 61, 80, 81].Khatiso e pheta-phetoang ea 3D bakeng sa thuto ea anatomy e phahameng haholo e etsa hore mefuta ea khatiso ea 3D e be le litšenyehelo tse ngata [26].Tšebeliso ea 3DPAM e ka ntlafatsa bokhoni ba ho potoloha ha kelello [23] le ho ntlafatsa tlhaloso ea litšoantšo tse fapaneng [23, 32].Liphuputso tse peli li fumane hore liithuti tse pepesehetseng 3DPAM li ne li ka 'na tsa etsoa opereishene [40, 74].Lihokelo tsa tšepe li ka kenngoa ho theha motsamao o hlokahalang ho ithuta anatomy e sebetsang [51, 53], kapa mehlala e ka hatisoa ho sebelisoa meralo ea trigger [67].
Khatiso ea 3D e lumella ho theoa ha mefuta e ka feto-fetohang ea anatomical ka ho ntlafatsa likarolo tse itseng nakong ea sethala sa mohlala, [48, 80] ho theha motheo o loketseng, [59] ho kopanya mefuta e mengata, [36] ho sebelisa pepeneneng, (49) mmala, [45] kapa ho etsa hore likarolo tse itseng tsa ka hare li bonahale [30].Tripodi le basebetsi-'moho ba ne ba sebelisa letsopa le betliloeng ho tlatsana le mefuta ea bona ea masapo e hatisitsoeng ea 3D, ba hatisa bohlokoa ba mehlala e entsoeng hammoho e le lisebelisoa tsa ho ruta [47].Lithutong tse 9, ho ile ha sebelisoa mebala ka mor’a ho hatisa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75], empa liithuti li ile tsa e sebelisa hang feela [49].Ka bomalimabe, thuto ha ea ka ea hlahloba boleng ba koetliso ea mohlala kapa tatellano ea koetliso.Sena se lokela ho nahanoa molemong oa thuto ea anatomy, kaha melemo ea ho ithuta e kopaneng le ho bopa hammoho e thehiloe hantle [89].Ho sebetsana ka katleho le mosebetsi o ntseng o eketseha oa papatso, ho ithuta ho 'nile ha sebelisoa ka makhetlo a mangata ho hlahloba mehlala [24, 26, 27, 32, 46, 69, 82].
Phuputso e 'ngoe e fihletse qeto ea hore' mala oa thepa ea polasetiki o ne o khanya haholo[45], phuputso e 'ngoe e ile ea etsa qeto ea hore mohlala o ne o fokola haholo[71],' me lithuto tse ling tse peli li bontšitse ho haella ha phapang ea anatomical moralong oa mefuta e meng [25, 45] ]..Lithuto tse supileng li fihletse qeto ea hore lintlha tsa anatomical tsa 3DPAM ha lia lekana [28, 34, 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].
Bakeng sa mehlala e qaqileng ea li-anatomical tsa libaka tse kholo le tse rarahaneng, tse kang retroperitoneum kapa mokokotlo oa mokokotlo, nako ea ho arola le ea mohlala e nkoa e le telele haholo 'me litšenyehelo li phahame haholo (hoo e ka bang US $ 2000) [27, 48].Hojo le basebetsi-'moho le bona ba boletse thutong ea bona hore ho nkile lihora tse 40 ho theha mofuta oa anatomical oa pelvis [42].Nako e telele ka ho fetisisa ea ho arola e ne e le lihora tse 380 thutong ea Weatherall le basebetsi-'moho, moo mefuta e mengata e kopantsoeng ho etsa mohlala o feletseng oa sefofane sa bana [36].Lithutong tse robong, karohano le nako ea khatiso e ne e nkuoa e le mefokolo [36, 42, 57, 58, 74].Leha ho le joalo, lithuto tsa 12 li ile tsa nyatsa litšobotsi tsa 'mele tsa mefuta ea tsona, haholo-holo ho tsitsa ha tsona, [28, 62] ho hloka pepeneneng, [30] fragility le monochromaticity, [71] ho hloka lisele tse bonolo, [66] kapa ho hloka lintlha [28, 34]., 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].Mefokolo ena e ka hlōloa ka ho eketsa nako ea ho arola kapa ea ho etsisa.Ho lahleheloa le ho fumana boitsebiso bo nepahetseng e ne e le bothata bo tobaneng le lihlopha tse tharo [30, 74, 77].Ho ea ka litlaleho tsa mokuli, li-agent tse fapaneng tsa iodine ha lia ka tsa fana ka ponahalo e nepahetseng ea methapo ka lebaka la mefokolo ea litekanyetso [74].Ente ea mofuta oa cadaveric e bonahala e le mokhoa o nepahetseng o suthelang hole le molao-motheo oa "hanyenyane kamoo ho ka khonehang" le mefokolo ea lethal dose ea motsoako o fapaneng o kentsoeng.
Ka bomalimabe, lingoliloeng tse ngata ha li bue ka likarolo tse ling tsa bohlokoa tsa 3DPAM.Ka tlase ho halofo ea lingoloa li boletse ka ho hlaka hore na 3DPAM ea bona e ne e tiisitsoe.Kakaretso ea boholo ba khatiso e ne e sa lumellane (43% ea lihlooho), 'me ke 34% feela e boletseng tšebeliso ea mecha ea litaba e mengata.Mekhahlelo ena ea khatiso e bohlokoa hobane e susumetsa thepa ea ho ithuta ea 3DPAM.Lingoliloeng tse ngata ha li fane ka tlhahisoleseling e lekaneng mabapi le mathata a ho fumana 3DPAM (nako ea moralo, mangolo a basebetsi, litšenyehelo tsa software, litšenyehelo tsa khatiso, joalo-joalo).Lintlha tsena li bohlokoa 'me li lokela ho nahanoa pele ho nahanoa ho qala morero oa ho hlahisa 3DPAM e ncha.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e bontša hore ho qapa le ho hatisa 3D mekhoa e tloaelehileng ea anatomical e ka khoneha ka theko e tlaase, haholo-holo ha u sebelisa li-printer tsa FDM kapa SLA le thepa ea polasetiki ea 'mala o le mong e theko e tlaase.Leha ho le joalo, meralo ena ea mantlha e ka ntlafatsoa ka ho eketsa mebala kapa ho eketsa meralo ka thepa e fapaneng.Mehlala e sebetsang haholoanyane (e hatisitsoeng ho sebelisoa lisebelisoa tse ngata tsa mebala e fapaneng le libopeho ho pheta-pheta litšoaneleho tse khahlang tsa mofuta oa referense ea cadaver) e hloka theknoloji e theko e phahameng ea khatiso ea 3D le linako tse telele tsa moralo.Sena se tla eketsa haholo litšenyehelo ka kakaretso.Ho sa tsotellehe hore na ho khethoa mokhoa ofe oa khatiso, ho khetha mokhoa o nepahetseng oa ho nka litšoantšo ke senotlolo sa katleho ea 3DPAM.Ha tharollo ea sebaka e phahame, ke moo mohlala o fetohang oa sebele haholoanyane 'me o ka sebelisoa bakeng sa lipatlisiso tse tsoetseng pele.Ho ea ka pono ea borutoana, 3DPAM ke sesebelisoa se sebetsang sa ho ruta anatomy, joalo ka ha ho pakoa ke liteko tsa tsebo tse fuoang baithuti le khotsofalo ea bona.Phello ea ho ruta ea 3DPAM e molemo ka ho fetisisa ha e hlahisa libaka tse rarahaneng tsa anatomical 'me liithuti li e sebelisa mathoasong a koetliso ea bona ea bongaka.
Lintlha tse hlahisitsoeng le/kapa tse hlahlobiloeng thutong ea hajoale ha li fumanehe phatlalatsa ka lebaka la litšitiso tsa puo empa li fumaneha ho tsoa ho sengoli se tsamaisanang le sona ka kopo e utloahalang.
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Ghosh SK Cadaveric dissection e le sesebelisoa sa thuto bakeng sa saense ea anatomical lekholong la 21st: Dissection e le sesebelisoa sa thuto.Tlhahlobo ea thuto ea mahlale.2017;10(3):286–99.
Nako ea poso: Apr-09-2024