Mehlala ea anatomiki e hatisitsoeng ka mahlakore a mararo (3DPAMs) e bonahala e le sesebelisoa se loketseng ka lebaka la boleng ba eona ba thuto le ho khoneha ha eona. Morero oa tlhahlobo ena ke ho hlalosa le ho sekaseka mekhoa e sebelisitsoeng ho theha 3DPAM bakeng sa ho ruta anatomiki ea motho le ho lekola monehelo oa eona oa thuto.
Ho entsoe patlisiso ea elektroniki ho PubMed ho sebelisoa mantsoe a latelang: thuto, sekolo, ho ithuta, ho ruta, koetliso, ho ruta, thuto, mahlakore a mararo, 3D, mahlakore a mararo, khatiso, khatiso, khatiso, anatomy, anatomy, anatomy, le anatomy. . Liphuputso li ne li kenyelletsa litšobotsi tsa thuto, moralo oa mohlala, tlhahlobo ea sebopeho, ts'ebetso ea thuto, matla le bofokoli.
Har'a lihlooho tse 68 tse khethiloeng, palo e kholo ka ho fetisisa ea lithuto tse shebaneng le sebaka sa cranial (lihlooho tse 33); lihlooho tse 51 li bua ka khatiso ea masapo. Lihloohong tse 47, 3DPAM e ntlafalitsoe ho latela computed tomography. Mekhoa e mehlano ea khatiso e thathamisitsoe. Liplastiki le lihlahisoa tsa tsona li sebelisitsoe lithutong tse 48. Moralo ka mong o na le theko ho tloha ho $1.25 ho isa ho $2,800. Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e supileng li bapisitse 3DPAM le mehlala ea litšupiso. Lihlooho tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro li hlahlobile mesebetsi ea thuto. Melemo e meholo ke boleng ba pono le ba ho ama, bokhoni ba ho ithuta, ho pheta-pheta, ho iketsetsa le ho ba bonolo, ho boloka nako, ho kopanngoa ha anatomy e sebetsang, bokhoni bo betere ba ho potoloha kelello, ho boloka tsebo le khotsofalo ea tichere/seithuti. Mathata a maholo a amana le moralo: ho tsitsa, ho hloka lintlha kapa ho pepeneneng, mebala e khanyang haholo, linako tse telele tsa khatiso le litšenyehelo tse phahameng.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e bontša hore 3DPAM e theko e tlaase ebile e sebetsa hantle bakeng sa ho ruta anatomy. Mehlala e sebetsang haholoanyane e hloka tšebeliso ea mahlale a theko e boima a khatiso ea 3D le linako tse telele tsa moralo, e leng se tla eketsa haholo litšenyehelo ka kakaretso. Ntho ea bohlokoa ke ho khetha mokhoa o loketseng oa ho nka litšoantšo. Ho ea ka pono ea thuto, 3DPAM ke sesebelisoa se sebetsang sa ho ruta anatomy, se nang le tšusumetso e ntle liphellong tsa ho ithuta le khotsofalo. Phello ea ho ruta ea 3DPAM e molemohali ha e hlahisa libaka tse rarahaneng tsa anatomy 'me baithuti ba e sebelisa qalong ea koetliso ea bona ea bongaka.
Ho aroloa ha litopo tsa liphoofolo ho 'nile ha etsoa ho tloha Greece ea boholo-holo 'me ke e 'ngoe ea mekhoa e meholo ea ho ruta ka sebopeho sa 'mele. Ho aroloa ha litopo tse etsoang nakong ea koetliso ea mesebetsi ho sebelisoa lenaneong la thuto ea thuto ea thuto ea 'mele la baithuti ba bongaka ba univesithi 'me hona joale ho nkoa e le tekanyetso ea khauta bakeng sa ho ithuta ka sebopeho sa 'mele [1,2,3,4,5]. Leha ho le joalo, ho na le litšitiso tse ngata tšebelisong ea mehlala ea litopo tsa batho, e leng se etsang hore ho batloe lisebelisoa tse ncha tsa koetliso [6, 7]. Tse ling tsa lisebelisoa tsena tse ncha li kenyelletsa 'nete e eketsehileng, lisebelisoa tsa dijithale, le khatiso ea 3D. Ho ea ka tlhahlobo ea morao tjena ea lingoliloeng ke Santos et al. [8] Mabapi le bohlokoa ba mahlale ana a macha a ho ruta ka sebopeho sa 'mele, khatiso ea 3D e bonahala e le e 'ngoe ea mehloli ea bohlokoa ka ho fetisisa, ka bobeli mabapi le boleng ba thuto bakeng sa baithuti le mabapi le ho khoneha ha ho kenngoa tšebetsong [4,9,10].
Khatiso ea 3D ha se ntho e ncha. Litokelo tsa pele tsa molao tse amanang le theknoloji ena li qalile ka 1984: A Le Méhauté, O De Witte le JC André Fora, le libeke tse tharo hamorao C Hull USA. Ho tloha ka nako eo, theknoloji e 'nile ea tsoela pele ho fetoha 'me tšebeliso ea eona e atolohile libakeng tse ngata. Mohlala, NASA e hatisitse ntho ea pele ka nģ'ane ho Lefatše ka 2014 [11]. Lefapha la bongaka le lona le amohetse sesebelisoa sena se secha, ka hona le eketsa takatso ea ho nts'etsapele meriana e ikhethileng [12].
Bangoli ba bangata ba bontšitse melemo ea ho sebelisa mehlala ea anatomiki e hatisitsoeng ka 3D (3DPAM) thutong ea bongaka [10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Ha ho rutoa kaheho ea motho, ho hlokahala mehlala e seng ea pathological le ea anatomically e tloaelehileng. Litlhahlobo tse ling li hlahlobile mehlala ea koetliso ea pathological kapa ea bongaka/opereishene [8, 20, 21]. Ho nts'etsapele mohlala o kopaneng oa ho ruta kaheho ea motho o kenyelletsang lisebelisoa tse ncha tse kang khatiso ea 3D, re entse tlhahlobo e hlophisitsoeng ho hlalosa le ho sekaseka kamoo lintho tse hatisitsoeng ka 3D li bōptjoang kateng bakeng sa ho ruta kaheho ea motho le kamoo baithuti ba lekolang katleho ea ho ithuta ba sebelisa lintho tsena tsa 3D.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng ea lingoliloeng e entsoe ka Phuptjane 2022 ho sebelisoa litataiso tsa PRISMA (Lintho tse Khethiloeng tsa Tlaleho bakeng sa Litlhahlobo tse Hlophisitsoeng le Litlhahlobo tsa Meta) ntle le lithibelo tsa nako [22].
Mekhoa ea ho kenyelletsa e ne e le lipampiri tsohle tsa lipatlisiso tse sebelisang 3DPAM thutong/thutong ea 'mele. Litlhahlobo tsa lingoliloeng, mangolo, kapa lihlooho tse shebaneng le mehlala ea mafu, mehlala ea liphoofolo, mehlala ea lintho tsa khale, le mehlala ea koetliso ea bongaka/ho buoa li ile tsa tlosoa. Ke lihlooho tse hatisitsoeng ka Senyesemane feela tse ileng tsa khethoa. Lihlooho tse se nang likhutšoane tse fumanehang inthaneteng li ile tsa tlosoa. Lihlooho tse neng li kenyelletsa mehlala e mengata, bonyane e 'ngoe ea tsona e ne e tloaelehile ka mokhoa oa 'mele kapa e nang le mafu a manyane a sa ameng boleng ba thuto, li ile tsa kenyelletsoa.
Ho ile ha etsoa lipatlisiso tsa lingoliloeng polokelongtshedimosetsong ea elektroniki ea PubMed (Laeborari ea Naha ea Bongaka, NCBI) ho fumana lithuto tse amehang tse phatlalalitsoeng ho fihlela ka Phuptjane 2022. Sebelisa mantsoe a latelang a lipatlisiso: thuto, sekolo, ho ruta, ho ruta, ho ithuta, ho ruta, thuto, mahlakore a mararo, 3D, 3D, khatiso, khatiso, khatiso, anatomy, anatomy, anatomy le anatomy. Ho ile ha etsoa potso e le 'ngoe: (((thuto[Sehlooho/Kakaretso] KAPA sekolo[Sehlooho/Kakaretso] KAPA ho ithuta[Sehlooho/Kakaretso] KAPA ho ruta[Sehlooho/Kakaretso] KAPA koetliso[Sehlooho/Kakaretso] KAPA E mong le e mong[Sehlooho/Kakaretso]] KAPA Thuto[Sehlooho/Kakaretso]) LE (Litekanyo tse Tharo [Sehlooho] KAPA 3D [Sehlooho] KAPA 3D [Sehlooho])) LE (Print [Sehlooho] KAPA Printa [Sehlooho] KAPA Printa [Sehlooho])) LE (Anatomy) [Sehlooho] ]/kakaretso] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/kakaretso] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/kakaretso] kapa anatomy [sehlooho/kakaretso]). Lihlooho tse ling li ile tsa khetholloa ka ho batla ka letsoho database ea PubMed le ho hlahloba litšupiso tsa lingoloa tse ling tsa mahlale. Ha ho lithibelo tsa letsatsi tse ileng tsa sebelisoa, empa ho ile ha sebelisoa sefe ea "Motho".
Lihlooho tsohle le dikakaretso tse nkiloeng di ile tsa hlahlojwa kgahlanong le maemo a ho kenyeletswa le a ho qhelelwa ka thoko ke bangodi ba babedi (EBR le AL), mme phuputso efe kapa efe e sa fihlelleng maemo ohle a ho tshwaneleha e ile ya qhelelwa ka thoko. Dingolwa tse feletseng tsa dithuto tse setseng di ile tsa kgutliswa mme tsa hlahlojwa ke bangodi ba bararo (EBR, EBE le AL). Ha ho hlokahala, ho se dumellane ha ho kgethwa dihlooho ho ile ha rarollwa ke motho wa bone (LT). Dingolwa tse fihlelletseng maemo ohle a ho kenyeletswa di ile tsa kenyelletswa tlhahlobong ena.
Ho ntšoa ha data ho entsoe ka boikemelo ke bangoli ba babeli (EBR le AL) tlas'a tlhokomelo ea mongoli oa boraro (LT).
- Lintlha tsa moralo oa mohlala: libaka tsa anatomiki, likarolo tse itseng tsa anatomiki, mohlala oa pele oa khatiso ea 3D, mokhoa oa ho fumana, software ea karohano le ea ho etsa mohlala, mofuta oa khatiso ea 3D, mofuta oa thepa le bongata, sekala sa khatiso, 'mala, litšenyehelo tsa khatiso.
- Tlhahlobo ea sebopeho sa mehlala: mehlala e sebelisoang bakeng sa papiso, tlhahlobo ea bongaka ea litsebi/matichere, palo ea bahlahlobi, mofuta oa tlhahlobo.
- Moetso oa ho ruta oa 3D: tlhahlobo ea tsebo ea seithuti, mokhoa oa tlhahlobo, palo ea baithuti, palo ea lihlopha tsa papiso, ho hlophisa ka mokhoa o sa reroang ha baithuti, thuto/mofuta oa seithuti.
Lithuto tse 418 li ile tsa fumanoa ho MEDLINE, 'me lihlooho tse 139 li ile tsa tlosoa ka har'a sefe sa "batho". Kamora ho hlahloba lihlooho le likakaretso, lithuto tse 103 li ile tsa khethoa bakeng sa ho baloa ka botlalo. Lihlooho tse 34 li ile tsa tlosoa hobane e ne e le mehlala ea mafu (lihlooho tse 9), mehlala ea koetliso ea bongaka/ho buuoa (lihlooho tse 4), mehlala ea liphoofolo (lihlooho tse 4), mehlala ea mahlaseli a 3D (sehlooho se le seng) kapa e ne e se lihlooho tsa saense tsa pele (likhaolo tse 16). ). Kakaretso ea lihlooho tse 68 e kenyelelitsoe tlhahlobong. Setšoantšo sa 1 se hlahisa ts'ebetso ea khetho e le chate ea phallo.
Chate ea phallo e akaretsang ho tsebahatsa, ho hlahloba le ho kenyelletsa lingoloa tlhahlobong ena e hlophisitsoeng
Lithuto tsohle li phatlalalitsoe pakeng tsa 2014 le 2022, ka karolelano ea selemo sa phatlalatso sa 2019. Har'a lingoloa tse 68 tse kenyellelitsoeng, lithuto tse 33 (49%) e ne e le tse hlalosang le tse lekang, tse 17 (25%) e ne e le tsa liteko feela, 'me tse 18 (26%) e ne e le tsa liteko feela. Li hlalosa feela. Ho lithuto tse 50 (73%) tsa liteko, tse 21 (31%) li sebelisitse mokhoa oa ho khetholla. Ke lithuto tse 34 feela (50%) tse kenyellelitseng litlhahlobo tsa lipalo-palo. Tafole ea 1 e akaretsa litšobotsi tsa thuto ka 'ngoe.
Lihlooho tse 33 (48%) li hlahlobile sebaka sa hlooho, lihlooho tse 19 (28%) li hlahlobile sebaka sa sefuba, lihlooho tse 17 (25%) li hlahlobile sebaka sa mpa ea pelvic, 'me lihlooho tse 15 (22%) li hlahlobile lipheletso. Lihlooho tse mashome a mahlano a motso o mong (75%) li boletse masapo a hatisitsoeng ka 3D e le mehlala ea anatomiki kapa mehlala ea anatomiki ea likarolo tse ngata.
Mabapi le mehlala ea mohloli kapa lifaele tse sebelisitsoeng ho nts'etsapele 3DPAM, lihlooho tse 23 (34%) li boletse tšebeliso ea lintlha tsa bakuli, lihlooho tse 20 (29%) li boletse tšebeliso ea lintlha tsa setopo, 'me lihlooho tse 17 (25%) li boletse tšebeliso ea li-database.
Lithuto tse 47 (69%) li ntlafalitse 3DPAM ho latela computed tomography, 'me lithuto tse 3 (4%) li tlalehile tšebeliso ea microCT. Lihlooho tse 7 (10%) li bontšitse lintho tsa 3D li sebelisa li-scanner tsa optical, lihlooho tse 4 (6%) li sebelisa MRI, le sehlooho se le seng (1%) se sebelisa lik'hamera le li-microscope. Lihlooho tse 14 (21%) ha lia ka tsa bua ka mohloli oa lifaele tsa mohloli oa moralo oa mohlala oa 3D. Lifaele tsa 3D li entsoe ka qeto e tloaelehileng ea sebaka e ka tlase ho 0.5 mm. Qeto e ntle ka ho fetisisa ke 30 μm [80] 'me qeto e phahameng ka ho fetisisa ke 1.5 mm [32].
Ho sebelisitsoe mananeo a software a mashome a tšeletseng a fapaneng (karohano, mohlala, moralo kapa khatiso). Ho sebelisitsoe Mimics (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) hangata (lithuto tse 14, 21%), e lateloa ke MeshMixer (Autodesk, San Rafael, CA) (lithuto tse 13, 19%), Geomagic (3D System, MO, NC, Leesville). (lithuto tse 10, 15%), 3D Slicer (Slicer Developer Training, Boston, MA) (lithuto tse 9, 13%), Blender (Blender Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands) (lithuto tse 8, 12%) le CURA (Geldemarsen, Netherlands) (lithuto tse 7, 10%).
Ho boletsoe mehlala e mashome a tšeletseng a metso e supileng ea khatiso le mekhoa e mehlano ea khatiso. Theknoloji ea FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) e sebelisitsoe lihlahisoa tse 26 (38%), ho phatloha ha thepa lihlahisoa tse 13 (19%) le ho phatloha ha binder (lihlahisoa tse 11, 16%). Mahlale a sa sebelisoeng haholo ke stereolithography (SLA) (lihlooho tse 5, 7%) le selective laser sintering (SLS) (lihlooho tse 4, 6%). Printa e sebelisoang haholo (lihlooho tse 7, 10%) ke Connex 500 (Stratasys, Rehovot, Israel) [27, 30, 32, 36, 45, 62, 65].
Ha ho totobatsoa thepa e sebedisitsweng ho etsa 3DPAM (dihlooho tse 51, 75%), dithuto tse 48 (71%) di sebedisitse dipolasetiki le dihlahiswa tsa tsona. Dintho tse ka sehloohong tse sebedisitsweng e ne e le PLA (polylactic acid) (n = 20, 29%), resin (n = 9, 13%) le ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (mefuta e 7, 10%). Dihlooho tse 23 (34%) di hlahlobile 3DPAM e entsweng ka thepa e mengata, dihlooho tse 36 (53%) di hlahisitse 3DPAM e entsweng ka thepa e le nngwe feela, mme dihlooho tse 9 (13%) ha di a ka tsa totobatsa thepa.
Lihlooho tse mashome a mabeli a metso e robong (43%) li tlalehile karo-karolelano ea khatiso e tlohang ho 0.25:1 ho isa ho 2:1, ka karolelano ea 1:1. Lihlooho tse mashome a mabeli a metso e mehlano (37%) li sebelisitse karolelano ea 1:1. Li-3DPAM tse 28 (41%) li ne li entsoe ka mebala e mengata, 'me tse 9 (13%) li ile tsa dauoa ka mor'a ho hatisoa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75].
Lihlooho tse mashome a mararo a metso e mene (50%) li boletse litšenyehelo. Lihlooho tse 9 (13%) li boletse litšenyehelo tsa liprinta tsa 3D le thepa e tala. Liprinta li fapana ka theko ho tloha ho $302 ho isa ho $65,000. Ha ho boletsoe, litheko tsa mohlala li tloha ho $1.25 ho isa ho $2,800; lintho tsena tse feteletseng li tsamaisana le mehlala ea masapo [47] le mehlala ea retroperitoneal e tšepahalang haholo [48]. Tafole ea 2 e akaretsa lintlha tsa mohlala bakeng sa thuto ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e supileng (54%) li bapisitse 3DAPM le mohlala oa litšupiso. Har'a lithuto tsena, papiso e tloaelehileng haholo e ne e le mohlala oa litšupiso oa anatomical, o sebelisitsoeng lihloohong tse 14 (38%), litokisetso tse entsoeng ka plastine lihloohong tse 6 (16%), le litokisetso tse entsoeng ka plastine lihloohong tse 6 (16%). Tšebeliso ea 'nete ea sebele, tomography e entsoeng ka computed e tšoantšetsang 3DPAM e le 'ngoe lihloohong tse 5 (14%), 3DPAM e 'ngoe lihloohong tse 3 (8%), lipapali tse tebileng sehloohong se le seng (3%), li-radiograph sehloohong se le seng (3%), mehlala ea khoebo sehloohong se le seng (3%) le 'nete e eketsehileng sehloohong se le seng (3%). Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e mene (50%) li hlahlobile 3DPAM. Lithuto tse leshome le metso e mehlano (48%) li hlahlobile liphihlelo tsa bahlahlobi (Tafole ea 3). 3DPAM e entsoe ke lingaka tse buoang kapa lingaka tse eang lithutong tse 7 (47%), litsebi tsa anatomiki lithutong tse 6 (40%), baithuti lithutong tse 3 (20%), matichere (lefapha la thuto ha lea hlalosoa) lithutong tse 3 (20%) bakeng sa tlhahlobo le mohlahlobi e mong hape sehloohong (7%). Palo e tloaelehileng ea bahlahlobi ke 14 (bonyane 2, boholo ba 30). Lithuto tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro (49%) li hlahlobile sebopeho sa 3DPAM ka boleng, 'me lithuto tse 10 (15%) li hlahlobile sebopeho sa 3DPAM ka bongata. Ho lithuto tse 33 tse sebelisitseng liteko tsa boleng, tse 16 li sebelisitse liteko tse hlalosang feela (48%), liteko/litekanyetso/liphuputso tse 9 (27%), 'me tse 8 li sebelisitse sekala sa Likert (24%). Tafole ea 3 e akaretsa liteko tsa sebopeho tsa mehlala thutong ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Lihlooho tse mashome a mararo a metso e meraro (48%) li hlahlobile le ho bapisa katleho ea ho ruta baithuti 3DPAM. Lithutong tsena, lihlooho tse 23 (70%) li hlahlobile khotsofalo ea baithuti, tse 17 (51%) li sebelisitse sekala sa Likert, 'me tse 6 (18%) li sebelisitse mekhoa e meng. Lihlooho tse mashome a mabeli a metso e 'meli (67%) li hlahlobile ho ithuta ha baithuti ka tlhahlobo ea tsebo, tseo ho tsona tse 10 (30%) li sebelisitseng liteko tsa pele le/kapa liteko tsa kamora. Lithuto tse leshome le motso o mong (33%) li sebelisitse lipotso le liteko tsa likhetho tse ngata ho hlahloba tsebo ea baithuti, 'me lithuto tse hlano (15%) li sebelisitse ho ngola litšoantšo/boitsebiso ba anatomiki. Ka karolelano baithuti ba 76 ba nkile karolo thutong ka 'ngoe (bonyane ba 8, boholo ba 319). Lithuto tse mashome a mabeli a metso e mene (72%) li ne li e-na le sehlopha sa taolo, tseo ho tsona tse 20 (60%) li sebelisitseng mokhoa oa ho etsa lintho ka mokhoa o sa reroang. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, thuto e le 'ngoe (3%) e abetse mehlala ea anatomiki ka mokhoa o sa reroang ho baithuti ba 10 ba fapaneng. Ka karolelano, lihlopha tse 2.6 li ile tsa bapisoa (bonyane ba 2, boholo ba 10). Lithuto tse mashome a mabeli a metso e meraro (70%) li ne li kenyelletsa baithuti ba bongaka, bao ho bona ba 14 (42%) e neng e le baithuti ba bongaka ba selemo sa pele. Lithuto tse tšeletseng (18%) li ne li kenyelletsa baahi, baithuti ba meno ba 4 (12%), le baithuti ba saense ba 3 (9%). Lithuto tse tšeletseng (18%) li kentse tšebetsong le ho lekola thuto e ikemetseng ho sebelisoa 3DPAM. Tafole ea 4 e akaretsa liphetho tsa tlhahlobo ea katleho ea ho ruta ea 3DPAM bakeng sa thuto ka 'ngoe e kenyellelitsoeng.
Melemo e meholo ea ho sebelisa 3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ruta bakeng sa ho ruta kaheho ea motho e tloaelehileng e tlalehiloeng ke bangoli ke litšobotsi tse bonahalang le tse amang, ho kenyeletsoa le 'nete [55, 67], ho nepahala [44, 50, 72, 85], le ho feto-fetoha ha botsitso [34]. , 45, 48, 64], mmala le pepeneneng [28, 45], botshepehi [24, 56, 73], phello ya thuto [16, 32, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], ditjeo [27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 64, 80, 81, 83], ho ikatisa hape [80], kgonahalo ya ntlafatso kapa ho iketsetsa dintho ka boikgethelo [28, 30, 36, 45, 48, 51, 53, 59, 61 , 67, 80], bokgoni ba ho laola baithuti [30, 49], ho boloka nako ya ho ruta [61, 80], bonolo ba polokelo [61], bokgoni ba ho kopanya sebopeho sa mmele se sebetsang kapa ho theha meaho e itseng [51, 53], 67], moralo o potlakileng oa skeleton ea mehlala [81], bokhoni ba ho theha le ho sebelisa mehlala ea ntlo ka kopanelo [49, 60, 71], bokhoni bo ntlafetseng ba ho potoloha kelellong [23] le ho boloka tsebo [32], hammoho le ho tichere [25, 63] le khotsofalo ea seithuti [25, 63]. 45, 46, 52, 52, 57, 63, 66, 69, 84].
Mathata a maholo a amana le moralo: ho tiea [80], ho tsitsa [28, 62], ho hloka lintlha kapa ho pepeneneng [28, 30, 34, 45, 48, 62, 64, 81], mebala e khanyang haholo [45]. le ho fokola ha mokatong [71]. Mathata a mang a kenyelletsa tahlehelo ea tlhahisoleseling [30, 76], nako e telele e hlokahalang bakeng sa karohano ea litšoantšo [36, 52, 57, 58, 74], nako ea khatiso [57, 63, 66, 67], ho hloka phapang ea 'mele [25], le litšenyehelo . Holimo [48].
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e akaretsa lingoloa tse 68 tse phatlalalitsoeng ka lilemo tse fetang 9 'me e totobatsa thahasello ea sechaba sa mahlale ho 3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ruta sebopeho se tloaelehileng sa motho. Sebaka se seng le se seng sa sebopeho sa motho se ile sa ithutoa 'me sa hatisoa ka 3D. Lingoloeng tsena, lingoloa tse 37 li bapisitse 3DPAM le mehlala e meng, 'me lingoloa tse 33 li ile tsa hlahloba bohlokoa ba thuto ba 3DPAM bakeng sa baithuti.
Ka lebaka la dipharologanyo tse teng moralong wa dithuto tsa kgatiso ya anatomiki ya 3D, ha re a ka ra nka ho loketse ho etsa tlhahlobo ya meta. Tlhahlobo ya meta e phatlaladitsweng ka 2020 e ne e shebane haholo le diteko tsa tsebo ya anatomiki kamora koetliso ntle le ho sekaseka dikarolo tsa botekgeniki le tsa theknoloji tsa moralo le tlhahiso ya 3DPAM [10].
Sebaka sa hlooho ke sona se ithutoang haholo, mohlomong hobane ho rarahana ha sebopeho sa sona sa 'mele ho etsa hore ho be thata haholo hore baithuti ba bontše sebaka sena sa 'mele sebakeng sa mahlakore a mararo ha ho bapisoa le maoto kapa 'mele. CT ke mokhoa o sebelisoang haholo oa ho nka litšoantšo. Mokhoa ona o sebelisoa haholo, haholo-holo libakeng tsa bongaka, empa o na le qeto e fokolang ea sebaka le phapang e tlase ea lisele tse bonolo. Meeli ena e etsa hore li-CT scan li se ke tsa tšoaneleha bakeng sa ho arola le ho etsa mohlala oa tsamaiso ea methapo. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, computed tomography e loketse haholoanyane bakeng sa ho arola/ho etsa mohlala oa lisele tsa masapo; phapang ea lisele tsa masapo/lisele tse bonolo e thusa ho phethela mehato ena pele ho mehlala ea anatomical ea khatiso ea 3D. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, microCT e nkoa e le theknoloji ea litšupiso mabapi le qeto ea sebaka ho litšoantšong tsa masapo [70]. Li-scanner tsa mahlo kapa MRI le tsona li ka sebelisoa ho fumana litšoantšo. Qeto e phahameng e thibela ho boreleli ha libaka tsa masapo 'me e boloka bonojoana ba meaho ea anatomical [59]. Khetho ea mohlala e boetse e ama qeto ea sebaka: mohlala, mehlala ea polasetiki e na le qeto e tlase [45]. Baqapi ba litšoantšo ba tlameha ho theha mehlala ea 3D e ikhethileng, e eketsang litšenyehelo ($25 ho isa ho $150 ka hora) [43]. Ho fumana difaele tsa boleng bo hodimo tsa .STL ha ho a lekana ho etsa mehlala ya boleng bo hodimo ya anatomiki. Ho hlokahala ho fumana diparamitha tsa ho hatisa, jwalo ka tataiso ya mohlala wa anatomiki poleiting ya ho hatisa [29]. Bangodi ba bang ba fana ka maikutlo a hore mahlale a kgatiso a tswetseng pele jwalo ka SLS a lokela ho sebediswa hohle moo ho kgonehang ho ntlafatsa ho nepahala ha 3DPAM [38]. Tlhahiso ya 3DPAM e hloka thuso ya botsebi; ditsebi tse batlwang haholo ke baenjiniere [72], dingaka tsa radiology, [75], baqapi ba ditshwantsho [43] le dingaka tsa anatomiki [25, 28, 51, 57, 76, 77].
Software ea ho arola le ho etsa mohlala ke lintlha tsa bohlokoa bakeng sa ho fumana mehlala e nepahetseng ea anatomiki, empa litšenyehelo tsa liphutheloana tsena tsa software le ho rarahana ha tsona li sitisa ts'ebeliso ea tsona. Lithuto tse 'maloa li bapisitse ts'ebeliso ea liphutheloana tse fapaneng tsa software le mahlale a ho hatisa, li totobatsa melemo le mathata a theknoloji ka' ngoe [68]. Ntle le software ea ho etsa mohlala, software ea ho hatisa e lumellanang le printa e khethiloeng le eona ea hlokahala; bangoli ba bang ba khetha ho sebelisa khatiso ea 3D inthaneteng [75]. Haeba lintho tse lekaneng tsa 3D li hatisoa, letsete le ka lebisa puseletsong ea lichelete [72].
Plastiki ke yona e sebediswang haholo. Mefuta e mengata ya yona ya dibopeho le mebala e etsa hore e be thepa e kgethwang bakeng sa 3DPAM. Bangodi ba bang ba rorisitse matla a yona a hodimo ha a bapiswa le mehlala ya setso ya ditopo kapa e phuthetsweng [24, 56, 73]. Dipolasitiki tse ding di bile di na le thepa ya ho kobeha kapa ho otlolla. Mohlala, Filaflex e nang le theknoloji ya FDM e ka otlolla ho fihla ho 700%. Bangodi ba bang ba e nka e le thepa e kgethwang bakeng sa ho pheta-pheta mesifa, tendon le ligament [63]. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, dithuto tse pedi di hlahisitse dipotso mabapi le ho shebana le faeba nakong ya khatiso. Ha e le hantle, ho shebana le faeba ya mesifa, ho kenya, ho boloka mmele, le tshebetso di bohlokwa ho bopeng mesifa [33].
Ho makatsang ke hore ke liphuputso tse fokolang tse buang ka sekala sa khatiso. Kaha batho ba bangata ba nka karolelano ea 1:1 e le e tloaelehileng, mongoli a ka 'na a khetha ho se bue ka eona. Le hoja ho phahamisa tekanyo ho le molemo bakeng sa ho ithuta ka tataiso lihlopheng tse kholo, monyetla oa ho phahamisa tekanyo ha o so hlahlojoe hantle, haholo-holo ka ho hola ha boholo ba lihlopha le boholo ba 'mele ba mohlala e le ntlha ea bohlokoa. Ehlile, sekala sa boholo bo felletseng se etsa hore ho be bonolo ho fumana le ho buisana le mokuli ka likarolo tse fapaneng tsa anatomiki, e leng se ka hlalosang hore na ke hobane'ng ha li sebelisoa hangata.
Ho diprinta tse ngata tse fumanehang mmarakeng, tse sebedisang theknoloji ya PolyJet (inkjet ya thepa kapa binder inkjet) ho fana ka mebala e hlakileng le ya thepa e mengata (mme ka hona e nang le sebopeho se fapaneng) di bitsa tjhelete e pakeng tsa US$20,000 le US$250,000 ( https://www.aniwaa.com/ ). Theko ena e hodimo e ka fokotsa papatso ya 3DPAM dikolong tsa bongaka. Ntle le ditjeo tsa printer, ditjeo tsa thepa e hlokahalang bakeng sa khatiso ya inkjet di phahame ho feta tsa diprinta tsa SLA kapa FDM [68]. Ditheko tsa diprinta tsa SLA kapa FDM le tsona di theko e tlase, ho tloha ho €576 ho isa ho €4,999 dihloohong tse thathamisitsweng tlhahlobong ena. Ho ya ka Tripodi le basebetsi mmoho, karolo e nngwe le e nngwe ya masapo e ka hatiswa ka US$1.25 [47]. Lithuto tse leshome le motso o mong li fihletse qeto ea hore khatiso ea 3D e theko e tlase ho feta polasetiki kapa mehlala ea khoebo [24, 27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 63, 80, 81, 83]. Ho feta moo, mehlala ena ea khoebo e etselitsoe ho fana ka tlhaiso-leseling ea bakuli ntle le lintlha tse lekaneng bakeng sa ho ruta ka sebōpeho sa 'mele [80]. Mefuta ena ea khoebo e nkoa e le tlase ho 3DPAM [44]. Hoa bohlokoa ho hlokomela hore, ntle le theknoloji ea khatiso e sebelisitsoeng, litšenyehelo tsa ho qetela li lekana le sekala 'me ka hona boholo ba ho qetela ba 3DPAM [48]. Ka mabaka ana, sekala sa boholo bo felletseng se khethoa [37].
Phuputso e le 'ngoe feela e bapisitse 3DPAM le mehlala ea anatomiki e fumanehang khoebong [72]. Mehlala ea litopo ke eona e sebelisoang haholo ho bapisa 3DPAM. Ho sa tsotellehe mefokolo ea tsona, mehlala ea litopo e ntse e le sesebelisoa sa bohlokoa sa ho ruta anatomiki. Ho tlameha ho etsoa phapang pakeng tsa tlhahlobo ea setopo, karohano le lesapo le omileng. Ho latela liteko tsa koetliso, lithuto tse peli li bontšitse hore 3DPAM e ne e sebetsa hantle haholo ho feta karohano ea plastinated [16, 27]. Phuputso e 'ngoe e bapisitse hora e le 'ngoe ea koetliso ho sebelisoa 3DPAM (lehlakore le ka tlase) le hora e le 'ngoe ea karohano ea sebaka se tšoanang sa anatomiki [78]. Ho ne ho se na liphapang tse kholo lipakeng tsa mekhoa e 'meli ea ho ruta. Ho ka etsahala hore ebe ho na le lipatlisiso tse nyane ka taba ena hobane lipapiso tse joalo li thata ho li etsa. Karolo ea litopo ke tokisetso e jang nako bakeng sa baithuti. Ka linako tse ling ho hlokahala lihora tse ngata tsa ho itokisetsa, ho latela se lokisetsoang. Papiso ea boraro e ka etsoa ka masapo a omileng. Phuputso ea Tsai le Smith e fumane hore lintlha tsa liteko li ne li le betere haholo sehlopheng se sebelisang 3DPAM [51, 63]. Chen le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba hlokometse hore baithuti ba sebelisang mehlala ea 3D ba entse hantle ho khethollang meaho (mahata), empa ho ne ho se na phapang liphethong tsa MCQ [69]. Qetellong, Tanner le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba bontšitse liphetho tse betere tsa kamora tlhahlobo sehlopheng sena ba sebelisa 3DPAM ea pterygopalatine fossa [46]. Lisebelisoa tse ling tse ncha tsa ho ruta li ile tsa khetholloa tlhahlobong ena ea lingoliloeng. Tse tloaelehileng haholo har'a tsona ke 'nete e eketsehileng, 'nete ea sebele le lipapali tse tebileng [43]. Ho ea ka Mahrous le basebetsi-'moho le eena, khetho ea mehlala ea anatomiki e itšetlehile ka palo ea lihora tseo baithuti ba bapalang lipapali tsa video [31]. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, bothata bo boholo ba lisebelisoa tse ncha tsa ho ruta anatomiki ke maikutlo a haptic, haholo-holo bakeng sa lisebelisoa tsa sebele feela [48].
Bongata ba lithuto tse hlahlobang 3DPAM e ncha li sebelisitse liteko tsa pele ho tsebo. Liteko tsena tsa pele ho tlhahlobo li thusa ho qoba leeme tlhahlobong. Bangoli ba bang, pele ba etsa lithuto tsa liteko, ba qhelela ka thoko baithuti bohle ba fumaneng lintlha tse fetang karolelano tlhahlobong ea pele [40]. Har'a leeme leo Garas le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba le boletseng e ne e le 'mala oa mohlala le khetho ea baithaopi sehlopheng sa baithuti [61]. Ho taka ho nolofalletsa ho tsebahatsa meaho ea anatomiki. Chen le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba thehile maemo a thata a liteko ntle le liphapang tsa pele lipakeng tsa lihlopha 'me thuto e ile ea foufatsoa ho fihlela moo ho ka khonehang [69]. Lim le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba khothaletsa hore tlhahlobo ea kamora tlhahlobo e phetheloe ke motho oa boraro ho qoba leeme tlhahlobong [16]. Lithuto tse ling li sebelisitse likala tsa Likert ho lekola ho khoneha ha 3DPAM. Sesebelisoa sena se loketse ho lekola khotsofalo, empa ho ntse ho na le leeme la bohlokoa leo u lokelang ho le ela hloko [86].
Bohlokoa ba thuto ba 3DPAM bo ile ba hlahlojoa haholo-holo har'a baithuti ba bongaka, ho kenyeletsoa le baithuti ba bongaka ba selemo sa pele, lithutong tse 14 ho tse 33. Phuputsong ea bona ea teko, Wilk le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba tlalehile hore baithuti ba bongaka ba lumela hore khatiso ea 3D e lokela ho kenyelletsoa thutong ea bona ea anatomy [87]. 87% ea baithuti ba ileng ba botsoa lipatlisisong thutong ea Cercenelli ba lumela hore selemo sa bobeli sa thuto ke nako e ntle ea ho sebelisa 3DPAM [84]. Liphetho tsa Tanner le basebetsi-'moho le eena li boetse li bontšitse hore baithuti ba sebelitse hamolemo haeba ba ne ba e-so ithute tšimo eo [46]. Lintlha tsena li bontša hore selemo sa pele sa sekolo sa bongaka ke nako e nepahetseng ea ho kenyelletsa 3DPAM thutong ea anatomy. Tlhahlobo ea meta ea Ye e tšehelitse mohopolo ona [18]. Ho pholletsa le lihlooho tse 27 tse kenyellelitsoeng thutong ena, ho bile le liphapang tse kholo ts'ebetsong ea 3DPAM ha e bapisoa le mehlala ea setso ho baithuti ba bongaka, empa eseng ho baahi.
3DPAM e le sesebelisoa sa ho ithuta e ntlafatsa katleho ea thuto [16, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], ho boloka tsebo nako e telele [32], le khotsofalo ea seithuti [25, 45, 46, 52, 57, 63, 66]. , 69, 84]. Liphanele tsa litsebi le tsona li fumane mehlala ena e le molemo [37, 42, 49, 81, 82], 'me lithuto tse peli li fumane khotsofalo ea matichere ka 3DPAM [25, 63]. Mehloling eohle, Backhouse le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba nka khatiso ea 3D e le mokhoa o motle ka ho fetisisa oa ho sebelisa mehlala ea setso ea anatomiki [49]. Tlhahlobong ea bona ea pele ea meta, Ye le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba tiisitse hore baithuti ba fumaneng litaelo tsa 3DPAM ba ne ba e-na le lintlha tse betere tsa kamora tlhahlobo ho feta baithuti ba fumaneng litaelo tsa 2D kapa tsa setopo [10]. Leha ho le joalo, ba ile ba khetholla 3DPAM eseng ka ho rarahana, empa feela ka pelo, tsamaiso ea methapo le mokoti oa mpa. Lithutong tse supileng, 3DPAM ha ea ka ea sebetsa hantle ho feta mehlala e meng e thehiloeng litekong tsa tsebo tse fuoang baithuti [32, 66, 69, 77, 78, 84]. Tlhahlobong ea bona ea meta, Salazar le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba fihletse qeto ea hore tšebeliso ea 3DPAM e ntlafatsa kutloisiso ea anatomy e rarahaneng ka ho khetheha [17]. Khopolo ena e lumellana le lengolo la Hitas ho mohlophisi [88]. Libaka tse ling tsa anatomy tse nkoang li sa rarahana haholo ha li hloke tšebeliso ea 3DPAM, athe libaka tse rarahaneng haholo tsa anatomy (joalo ka molala kapa tsamaiso ea methapo) e ka ba khetho e utloahalang bakeng sa 3DPAM. Khopolo ena e ka hlalosa hore na ke hobane'ng ha li-3DPAM tse ling li sa nkoe li le betere ho feta mehlala ea setso, haholo-holo ha baithuti ba haelloa ke tsebo sebakeng seo ts'ebetso ea mohlala e fumanoang e le betere. Kahoo, ho hlahisa mohlala o bonolo ho baithuti ba seng ba ntse ba e-na le tsebo e itseng ka taba ena (liithuti tsa bongaka kapa baahi) ha ho thuse ho ntlafatsa ts'ebetso ea baithuti.
Har'a melemo eohle ea thuto e thathamisitsoeng, lithuto tse 11 li hatelitse litšobotsi tse bonahalang kapa tse amang tsa mehlala [27,34,44,45,48,50,55,63,67,72,85], 'me lithuto tse 3 li ntlafalitse matla le ho tšoarella (33, 50 -52, 63, 79, 85, 86). Melemo e meng ke hore baithuti ba ka laola meaho, matichere a ka boloka nako, ho bonolo ho e boloka ho feta litopo, projeke e ka phethoa ka hare ho lihora tse 24, e ka sebelisoa e le sesebelisoa sa ho ruta lapeng, 'me e ka sebelisoa ho ruta tlhahisoleseling e ngata. lihlopha [30, 49, 60, 61, 80, 81]. Khatiso e pheta-phetoang ea 3D bakeng sa thuto ea anatomy ea bophahamo bo phahameng e etsa hore mehlala ea khatiso ea 3D e be theko e tlaase haholo [26]. Tšebeliso ea 3DPAM e ka ntlafatsa bokhoni ba ho potoloha kelellong [23] le ho ntlafatsa tlhaloso ea litšoantšo tse arotsoeng [23, 32]. Lithuto tse peli li fumane hore baithuti ba pepesehetseng 3DPAM ba ne ba ka 'na ba etsoa opereishene [40, 74]. Lihokelo tsa tšepe li ka kenngoa ho theha motsamao o hlokahalang ho ithuta kaheho ea 'mele e sebetsang [51, 53], kapa mehlala e ka hatisoa ho sebelisoa meralo ea li-trigger [67].
Khatiso ea 3D e lumella ho thehoa ha mehlala ea anatomiki e ka fetoloang ka ho ntlafatsa likarolo tse itseng nakong ea mohato oa ho etsa mohlala, [48, 80] ho theha motheo o loketseng, [59] ho kopanya mehlala e mengata, [36] ho sebelisoa pepeneneng, (49) 'mala, [45] kapa ho etsa hore meaho e itseng ea ka hare e bonahale [30]. Tripodi le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba sebelisitse letsopa la ho betla ho tlatsa mehlala ea bona ea masapo e hatisitsoeng ka 3D, ba hatisa bohlokoa ba mehlala e entsoeng hammoho e le lisebelisoa tsa ho ruta [47]. Lithutong tse 9, 'mala o ile oa sebelisoa kamora ho hatisoa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75], empa baithuti ba o sebelisitse hang feela [49]. Ka bomalimabe, thuto ha ea ka ea hlahloba boleng ba koetliso ea mohlala kapa tatellano ea koetliso. Sena se lokela ho nahanoa moelelong oa thuto ea anatomiki, kaha melemo ea ho ithuta ho kopantsoeng le ho theha hammoho e thehiloe hantle [89]. Ho sebetsana le mosebetsi o ntseng o hola oa papatso, ho ithuta ka bouena ho sebelisitsoe ka makhetlo a mangata ho lekola mehlala [24, 26, 27, 32, 46, 69, 82].
Phuputso e 'ngoe e fihletse qeto ea hore 'mala oa thepa ea polasetiki o ne o khanya haholo[45], thuto e 'ngoe e fihletse qeto ea hore mohlala o ne o fokola haholo[71], 'me lithuto tse ling tse peli li bontšitse khaello ea ho feto-fetoha ha sebopeho sa 'mele moralong oa mehlala ka bomong[25, 45]. . Lithuto tse supileng li fihletse qeto ea hore lintlha tsa anatomiki tsa 3DPAM ha lia lekana [28, 34, 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].
Bakeng sa mehlala e qaqileng haholoanyane ea anatomiki ea libaka tse kholo le tse rarahaneng, joalo ka retroperitoneum kapa sebaka sa molomo oa popelo, nako ea karohano le mohlala e nkoa e le telele haholo 'me litšenyehelo li holimo haholo (hoo e ka bang US$2000) [27, 48]. Hojo le basebetsi-'moho le eena ba tlalehile thutong ea bona hore ho thehoa ha mohlala oa anatomiki oa pelvis ho nkile lihora tse 40 [42]. Nako e telele ka ho fetisisa ea karohano e bile lihora tse 380 thutong ea Weatherall le basebetsi-'moho le eena, moo mehlala e mengata e ileng ea kopanngoa ho theha mohlala o felletseng oa moea oa bana [36]. Lithutong tse robong, nako ea karohano le khatiso e ne e nkoa e le mefokolo [36, 42, 57, 58, 74]. Leha ho le joalo, lithuto tse 12 li ile tsa nyatsa litšobotsi tsa 'mele tsa mehlala ea tsona, haholo-holo ho tsitsa ha tsona, [28, 62] ho hloka pepeneneng, [30] ho fokola le monochromaticity, [71] ho hloka lisele tse bonolo, [66] kapa ho hloka lintlha tse qaqileng [28, 34]. , 45, 48, 62, 63, 81]. Mathata ana a ka rarolloa ka ho eketsa nako ea ho arola kapa ho etsisa. Ho lahleheloa le ho fumana tlhahisoleseling e amehang e ne e le bothata bo tobaneng le lihlopha tse tharo [30, 74, 77]. Ho ea ka litlaleho tsa bakuli, li-contrast agent tse nang le iodine ha lia ka tsa fana ka ponahalo e ntle ea methapo ea mali ka lebaka la meeli ea tekanyo [74]. Ho enta mohlala oa setopo ho bonahala e le mokhoa o motle o tlohang hole le molao-motheo oa "ho honyenyane kamoo ho ka khonehang" le meeli ea tekanyo ea contrast agent e entetsoeng.
Ka bomalimabe, lingoloa tse ngata ha li bue ka likarolo tse ling tsa bohlokoa tsa 3DPAM. Lingoloa tse ka tlase ho halofo li boletse ka ho hlaka hore na 3DPAM ea tsona e ne e fifalitsoe. Ho phatlalatsoa ha boholo ba khatiso ho ne ho sa tsitsane (43% ea lingoloa), 'me ke 34% feela e boletseng tšebeliso ea mecha ea phatlalatso e mengata. Litekanyetso tsena tsa khatiso li bohlokoa hobane li susumetsa litšobotsi tsa ho ithuta tsa 3DPAM. Lingoloa tse ngata ha li fane ka tlhaiso-leseling e lekaneng mabapi le mathata a ho fumana 3DPAM (nako ea moralo, mangolo a basebetsi, litšenyehelo tsa software, litšenyehelo tsa khatiso, jj.). Tlhahisoleseling ena e bohlokoa 'me e lokela ho nahanoa pele ho nahanoa ka ho qala projeke ea ho nts'etsapele 3DPAM e ncha.
Tlhahlobo ena e hlophisitsoeng e bontša hore ho rala le ho hatisa mehlala e tloaelehileng ea anatomiki ea 3D hoa khoneha ka theko e tlase, haholo-holo ha ho sebelisoa liprinta tsa FDM kapa SLA le thepa ea polasetiki e theko e tlaase ea 'mala o le mong. Leha ho le joalo, meralo ena ea motheo e ka ntlafatsoa ka ho eketsa 'mala kapa ho eketsa meralo linthong tse fapaneng. Mehlala ea sebele haholoanyane (e hatisitsoeng ho sebelisoa thepa e mengata ea mebala le libopeho tse fapaneng ho etsisa haufi-ufi litšobotsi tse amang tsa mohlala oa litšupiso tsa setopo) e hloka mahlale a theko e boima a khatiso ea 3D le linako tse telele tsa moralo. Sena se tla eketsa litšenyehelo ka kakaretso haholo. Ho sa tsotelehe hore na ho khethiloe mokhoa ofe oa khatiso, ho khetha mokhoa o nepahetseng oa ho nka litšoantšo ke senotlolo sa katleho ea 3DPAM. Ha qeto ea sebaka e phahame, mohlala o ba oa 'nete haholoanyane' me o ka sebelisoa bakeng sa lipatlisiso tse tsoetseng pele. Ho ea ka pono ea thuto, 3DPAM ke sesebelisoa se sebetsang sa ho ruta anatomiki, joalo ka ha ho pakoa ke liteko tsa tsebo tse fuoang baithuti le khotsofalo ea bona. Phello ea thuto ea 3DPAM e molemohali ha e hlahisa libaka tse rarahaneng tsa anatomiki 'me baithuti ba e sebelisa qalong ea koetliso ea bona ea bongaka.
Disete tsa data tse hlahisitsweng le/kapa tse sekasekilweng thutong ya hajwale ha di fumanehe phatlalatsa ka lebaka la dithibelo tsa puo empa di fumaneha ho mongoli ya tsamaellanang le tsona ha ho kopuwa ka tsela e utlwahalang.
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Ghosh SK Cadaveric assection e le sesebelisoa sa thuto bakeng sa saense ea anatomical lekholong la bo21 la lilemo: Assection e le sesebelisoa sa thuto. Tlhahlobo ea thuto ea saense. 2017;10(3):286–99.
Nako ea poso: Pulungoana-01-2023